The United States of America, widely criticised for overthrowing governments, violating national sovereignty, and invading foreign lands to advance its strategic and national interests, began its own rise through similar actions. What started as a union of 13 colonies eventually expanded into a nation of 50 states, largely through calculated use of money, military strength, and direct land seizures.

Driven by the belief in “manifest destiny,” the Western power repeatedly used its economic and military advantage to pressure other countries into unequal agreements or outright conflict. This steady expansion of land and influence was not limited to the past. The same pattern has been visible even in recent times, from the Middle East to Venezuela and even discussions surrounding Greenland, showing that this approach has remained consistent over centuries.

Alaska Bought for Almost Nothing From Russia

Alaska, now the 49th state of the United States with a GDP exceeding $55 billion, was once part of the Russian Empire. Its transfer to the United States occurred under an agreement known as the “Cessation of Alaska” or the “Alaska Purchase.” On 30th March 1867, the United States agreed to pay just $7.2 million, which amounted to nearly two cents per acre, for a vast territory measuring 1,518,800 square kilometres.

Russian Tsar Alexander II decided to sell Alaska because he believed defending the land would be nearly impossible in the event of a war with Russia’s primary rival, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This decision was influenced by Russia’s earlier setback against the Ottoman Empire, where it lost over 12,000 soldiers and exhausted its resources. Facing military fatigue and financial strain, Russia chose to relinquish the territory.

At the time, Russia and the United States shared a common hostility toward the British Empire, which made the deal politically convenient despite internal opposition. US Secretary of State William Seward and Russian Minister Eduard de Stoeckl negotiated the agreement shortly after the American Civil War ended. The US Senate approved the treaty on 9th April 1867, and President Andrew Johnson signed it into law in May the same year.

Louisiana Becomes Part of the United States

In 1803, the United States executed another major land acquisition through the “Louisiana Purchase.” Under this agreement, the US paid France $15 million for approximately 827,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River. This single transaction dramatically increased the nation’s size and placed it firmly on the path of westward expansion across North America. It also helped block future territorial ambitions of Spain and France on the continent.

Control of the area around New Orleans was especially important to the United States. The primary objective was to safeguard American shipping routes along the Mississippi River, which passed through Spanish-controlled territory and ended at the port of New Orleans. From there, goods were transported to Europe and the Atlantic coast. Louisiana’s strategic position, combined with the growing number of American settlers and traders in the region, made full ownership highly desirable.

When Louisiana was transferred from Spain to France, the United States sent diplomat Robert Livingston to France in 1801 to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans. After Napoleon Bonaparte initially rejected the offer, President Thomas Jefferson dispatched James Monroe to support negotiations. In a sudden shift, Napoleon offered not just New Orleans but the entire Louisiana territory in April 1803, largely due to France’s financial difficulties and military losses. This offer came only days before Monroe arrived in Paris.

The terms of the “Louisiana Purchase” were finalised with the help of France’s finance minister, the Marquis de Barbe-Marbois. The United States paid $11,250,000 for Louisiana and an additional $3,750,000 to settle claims made by American citizens against France.

Texas Breaks Away From Mexico and Joins the United States

Texas was originally part of Mexico, where a growing population of American settlers led by Stephen F. Austin established communities near the Brazos River. This migration followed Mexico’s invitation to foreign settlers after gaining independence from Spain in the 1820s. However, this decision proved disastrous for Mexico, as it eventually led to the loss of the entire region to the United States.

By the 1830s, efforts by the Mexican government to assert control over these largely self-governing American settlements sparked resistance. The settlers soon outnumbered the local population, and tensions escalated into open conflict. In March 1836, Texas declared independence from Mexico during an armed struggle.

Sam Houston was elected president of the newly formed Republic of Texas. He and his supporters strongly favoured joining the United States, believing it would bring political stability and economic advantages. Texas was formally admitted as the 28th state on 28th December 1845. This decision triggered the Mexican-American War and deepened divisions within the United States over the issue of slavery. Texas had legalised slavery and later seceded to join the Confederate States of America before rejoining the Union after the Civil War.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

The Mexican-American War, fought between April 1846 and February 1848, significantly expanded US territory. Early in the war, the Army of the West entered New Mexico, capturing Las Vegas on 15th August 1846 and Santa Fe three days later. Fort Marcy, the first American military fort in New Mexico, was constructed northeast of Santa Fe on 23rd August. Charles Bent was appointed governor, and a civil government was established on 22nd September.

At the war’s conclusion, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo transferred New Mexico, including present-day Arizona and other regions, to the United States. Through this agreement, the US acquired more than 525,000 square miles or 1,360,000 square kilometres of land, including Arizona, California, western Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah, in exchange for $15,000,000. The US also agreed to settle over $3,000,000 in claims made by American citizens against Mexico.

The treaty defined the border between the Gila River and the Rio Grande, solidifying US control over New Mexico and California and recognising the Rio Grande as Texas’s southern boundary. The Organic Act of the Territory of New Mexico, part of the “Compromise of 1850,” formally organised the region under civil administration. Over time, these annexed territories were incorporated into the Union.

The Annexation of Hawaii

While the United States often expanded by exploiting weakened nations through treaties and financial pressure, it also relied on military force. Hawaii offers a clear example. American and British missionaries arrived in the islands in the 1820s, aiming to convert the local population to Christianity. Over time, Hawaii’s economy became increasingly dependent on the United States.

Corporate investors soon followed, purchasing large tracts of land and replacing traditional Hawaiian farming with plantation-based capitalism. As Hawaii’s sugar and whale industries grew reliant on American trade, discussions about annexation began in the 1850s.

Queen Liliuokalani, who was crown princess at the time of the referenced photograph, was eventually forced to surrender. The plan reached its climax on 16th January 1893, when US troops invaded Hawaii without justification and pressured the monarch into a conditional surrender. “Committee of Safety,” led by Sanford B. Dole, overthrew the queen with the implicit assistance of the United States. On 1st February, Minister John Stevens declared Hawaii a US protectorate and recognised Dole’s new government.

Dole later presented an annexation treaty to the US Senate and declared independence when pressured to step down. President William McKinley openly supported annexation after taking office in 1896 and signed a treaty with the Republic of Hawaii in 1897. This independence was short-lived, as Hawaii became a US territory and was eventually admitted as the 50th state on 21st August 1959.

The Guano Islands Act

The United States even identified opportunity in bird waste to strengthen its economy and expand its territory. Guano, or bird excrement, was a highly effective fertiliser, but deposits were rare and scattered across remote islands layered with centuries of accumulated waste.

To exploit this resource, the US Congress passed the Guano Islands Act in 1856. The law allowed any American citizen to claim an uninhabited guano-rich island on behalf of the nation. Driven by agricultural needs and military advantage, Americans launched naval missions to locate and seize such islands.

In 1857, the US deployed a 22-gun warship to collect and examine guano from newly claimed islands. Dozens of islands in the Pacific and Caribbean were taken under this law. American flags were raised as resources were extracted. Although over a hundred islands were claimed, many were later abandoned once the guano supplies were depleted.

Pacific Expansion and Island Hopping

Throughout the 19th century, the United States sought greater influence across the Pacific as part of its westward expansion beyond North America. This ambition later merged with the “island hopping” strategy during World War II, allowing the US to capture key Pacific islands.

Early interest in the Pacific was driven by trade opportunities with China. US officials recognised that sustained commerce required a network of ports across the ocean. During World War II, the US fought on two fronts, in Europe and the Pacific, prompting the development of the island hopping strategy by Admiral Chester Nimitz and General Douglas MacArthur.

This approach focused on bypassing heavily fortified islands and instead capturing weaker positions to support further advances. Isolated Japanese forces were left to suffer from disease and starvation as supply lines were cut. Over three years, the strategy enabled American forces to move steadily across the Pacific toward Japan.

The desire for a strategic base to support American interests in China also led to the establishment of a major US presence in Hawaii. Similarly, the purchase of the Philippines from Spain in 1898 reflected this maritime expansion. By 1900, the United States had secured significant commercial, political, military, and territorial interests across the Pacific, emerging as a global power.

Expansionism at the Core of the United States

The foundation of the United States rests heavily on expansion through force and annexation. This process shaped the nation into the third-largest country in the world. Each star on the American flag represents a unique story of how that territory became part of the Union.

This strategy did not end with territorial expansion. The United States has continued to pursue its interests through military interventions, regime changes, and foreign influence. The ouster of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in Bangladesh, the capture of Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro, and recent interest in resource-rich Greenland under President Donald Trump reflect this ongoing approach.

According to the White House, Trump considers Greenland a major national security concern due to increased Chinese and Russian activity in the Arctic. “Acquiring Greenland is important to deter our adversaries in the Arctic,” the statement said.

Greenland remains part of the Kingdom of Denmark, a US ally, highlighting that even partners are not exempt from Washington’s ambitions. History shows that the United States rarely abandons its expansionist goals, regardless of international law, sovereignty, or diplomatic norms. These principles are often enforced on others, but seldom applied to itself.